8.+and+9.+Chapter

=**Counterpoint**=

Species counterpoint

Species counterpoint is a type of so-called strict counterpoint, developed as a pedagogical (teaching) tool, in which a student progresses through several "species" of increasing complexity, always working with a very plain given part in the cantus firmus (Latin for "fixed melody"). The student gradually attains the ability to write free counterpoint (that is, less rigorously constrained counterpoint, usually without a cantus firmus) according to the rules at the given time.[2] The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a similar concept in his Scintille di musica (Brescia, 1533). The late 16th century Venetian theorist Zarlino elaborated on the idea in his influential Le institutioni harmoniche, and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by Lodovico Zacconi in his Prattica di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques as species, for example invertible counterpoint.

By far the most famous pedagogue to use the term, and the one who made it famous, was Johann Joseph Fux. In 1725 he published Gradus ad Parnassum (Steps to Parnassus), a work intended to help teach students how to compose, using counterpoint—specifically, the contrapuntal style as practised by Palestrina in the late 16th century—as the principal technique. As the basis for his simplified and often over-restrictive codification of Palestrina's practice (see General notes, below), Fux described five species:

1. Note against note; 2. Two notes against one; 3. Four (extended by others to include three, or six, etc.) notes against one; 4. Notes offset against each other (as suspensions); 5. All the first four species together, as "florid" counterpoint.

A succession of later theorists imitated Fux's seminal work quite closely, but often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. A good example is Luigi Cherubini.[3] [edit] Considerations for all species

Students of species counterpoint usually practice writing counterpoint in all the modes except Locrian (that is, Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian and Aeolian). The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part:

1. The final must be approached by step. If the final is approached from below, the leading tone must be raised, except in the case of the Phrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C ♯ is necessary at the cadence. 2. Permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. When the ascending minor sixth is used it must be immediately followed by motion downwards. 3. If writing two skips in the same direction—something which must be done only rarely—the second must be smaller than the first, and the interval between the first and the third note may not be dissonant. 4. If writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction. 5. The interval of a tritone in three notes is to be avoided (for example, an ascending melodic motion F - A - B natural), as is the interval of a seventh in three notes.

And, in all species, the following rules apply concerning the combination of the parts:

1. The counterpoint must begin and end on a perfect consonance. 2. Contrary motion should predominate. 3. Perfect consonances must be approached by oblique or contrary motion 4. Imperfect consonances may be approached by any type of motion 5. The interval of a tenth should not be exceeded between two adjacent parts, unless by necessity. 6. Build from the bass, upward.

Finally, in species counterpoint it is important to remember that the interval of the perfect fourth is usually considered a dissonance. Cantus Firmus

One contrapuntal line is always composed against another given line. This given voice is called the cantus firmus. This line may be taken from a book of chorales, as Fux suggests, may be provided by a teacher, may be composed by the student him/herself or may be taken from the work of a master. Consonance In writing counterpoint, it is important to note which consonances are being formed, for they produce what the ear hears as harmony. Fux lists five consonances, in two categories, to be used in the writing of counterpoint according to the rules he has laid down.

Perfect Consonances Include the unison and octave, along with the fifth Imperfect Consonances Include the major/minor third, and the major/minor sixth Dissonances Include the major/minor second, the fourth, the augmented fourth, the diminished fifth, and the major/minor seventh


 * Motion**

Motion in music is what creates interest. The establishment of tonal relationships is impossible without it, and the harmony created by the melodic motion of independent voices is what establishes these relationships. There are only three kinds of motion possible in one voice relative to another. Direct Motion The voices move in the same direction by stepping or skipping. Parallel Motion is a subset of Direct Motion wherein both voices move in the same direction by the same amount (the vertical interval between them does not change). Contrary Motion One voice moves up (down) in pitch while the other moves down (up) in pitch.

Oblique Motion One voice moves up or down by step or skip while the other voice does not move.

Variety is important in music. This holds true for rhythm, harmony and melodic motion. Judicious use of the three types of motion creates variety and helps minimize the possibility of motivic stagnation. General Rules

Fux's rules about contrapuntal motion under specific circumstances are four in number.

Only proceed from perfect consonance to perfect consonance in contrary or oblique motion.
 * First Rule**

Any of the three motions is permitted if moving from a perfect consonance to an imperfect consonance.
 * Second Rule**

Only proceed from imperfect consonance to perfect consonance in contrary or oblique motion.
 * Third Rule**

Any of the three motions is permitted if moving from an imperfect consonance to an imperfect consonance.
 * Fourth Rule**

Those who read closely may find that these four rules may be condensed into a single rule.

Rule Any motion is allowed except for the parallel motion from any consonance into a perfect consonance.

Progressing into the subject of counterpoint, several other "general rules" exist. These usually regard perfect consonances in one way or another. However, parallel motion into perfect consonances will always be forbidden in the Common Practice style. First Species - Note Against Note

First Species counterpoint is note against note counterpoint. That is to say that for every note in the cantus firmus there is one note in the added harmony. Rules for species counterpoint are grouped hard and soft. Hard rules may not be broken whereas soft rules may be broken if it will avoid violating a hard rule, though the better solution is one that breaks no rules.

The hard rules:

1) For every note of the cantus firmus there is one note in the counterpoint 2) No accidentals may be used (except rule 5) 3) All harmonies must be consonant (a perfect fourth is considered a dissonance) 4) The first interval must be any perfect harmony and the last an octave or unison 5) The last interval must be approached by motion of a minor second upwards (note rule 7 may not be broken) Hard rules continued: 6) All perfect intervals must be approached by contrary motion 7) Motion can proceed by step or leap but steps and leaps of augmented and diminished intervals and leaps of any seventh are forbidden. Leaps greater than an sixth are forbidden except for leaps of an octave which should be rare 8) The counterpoint may not outline an interval of a tritone or seventh except for an augmented fifth that is fully, stepwise outlined and precedes an inwards step

The soft rules: 1) No note may be repeated successively more than three times 2) No two successive leaps in the same direction may total more than an octave 3) While ascending, in the case of two successive steps or leaps, the larger one should precede the smaller; while descending the smaller should precede the larger 4) No successive leaps in opposite directions; leaps should be followed by inward, stepwise motion 5) The same harmonic interval should not repeat more than three times 6) There should be no more than two successive leaps 7) The range of the counterpoint should be limited to a tenth and all notes in the chosen mode should appear in the counterpoint

Other species of counterpoint:

Second Species - Two Notes Against One Third Species - Three/Four Notes Against One Fourth Species - Suspensions Fifth Species - Florid Counterpoint